Table 1 Signaling pathways associated with TS mediated by neuroinflammation
From: Neuroinflammation and pathways that contribute to tourette syndrome
Reference | Pathway | Function | Method |
|---|---|---|---|
[116] (Wu et al., 2023) | CaMKII/Drp1/ROS/NF-κB | Microglia activation | LPS-stimulated BV2 microglial cells |
[117] (Huang et al., 2008) | JAK2/STAT3 | Mediating microglia activation and dopaminergic neuron degeneration | Thrombin-stimulated rat primary microglia |
[118] (Wu et al., 2022) | JAK2/STAT3/p65 | Mediating neuroinflammation | LPS-stimulated mouse hippocampal CA1 region and BV2 cells |
[119] (Kim et al., 2006) | TLR4/STAT3 | Inducing ICAM-1 expression, mediating microglia activation, pro-inflammatory actions | LPS-stimulated mice lacking functional TLR4 |
[120] (Zeng et al., 2014) | Akt/IκB/ NF-κB | Mediating neuroinflammation | LPS-stimulated BV2 microglial cells |
[121] (Kang et al., 2012) | PI3K/Akt/ NF-κB | Inducing pro-inflammatory mediators, NO, PGE(2) and TNF-α, and their regulatory genes | LPS-stimulated BV2 microglial cells |
[122] (Hongyan et al., 2017a) | PI3K/Akt/ NF-κB | Increasing the levels of inflammatory cytokines, such as IL-6, IL-1β, and TNF-α, in the serum and striatum of rats | DOI-induced TS model in rats |
[123] (Hongyan et al., 2017b) | TLR/MyD88/NF-κB | Increasing the levels of inflammatory cytokines, such as IL-6, IL-1β, and TNF-α, in the serum and striatum of rats | DOI-induced TS model in rats, LPS-stimulated rats |
[124] (Long et al., 2019b) | BDNF/NF-κB | Decreasing the BDNF-mediated increase in NF-κB levels; increasing IL-6, IL-1β, and TNF-α levels in the serum, striatum, and cell supernatant of rats with TS | DOI-induced BV2 cells; DOI-induced TS model in rats |
[125] (Xu et al., 2017) | BDNF/TrkB/ MyD88/NF-κB | Increasing TrkB expression levels, activating downstream PI3K/AKT signaling after BDNF pretreatment; inhibiting the MyD88/NF-κB signaling pathway; promoting the inflammatory response and hippocampal apoptosis | Pretreatment with exogenous BDNF or the TrkB inhibitor; intracisternal infection with live Streptococcus pneumoniae |
[126] (Long et al., 2019a) | Nrf-2/HO‐1/HMGB1/NF‐кB | Mediating neuroinflammation | IPN-induced TS model in rats |
[127] (Chunhui et al., 2017) | EGF/EGFR/Nrf-2/HO‐1/ NF‐кB | Mediating inflammatory and oxidative injury | osteoblast cells |
[128] (Haddad, 2005) | NMDAR/ MAPK/CREB | Regulating the levels of amino acid neurotransmitters; mediating the activation of microglia | DOI-induced TS model in rats; LPS-stimulated BV2 microglial cells |
[129] (Hildonen et al., 2021) | PI3K/AKT/ mTOR | Affecting neuronal growth and proliferation; affecting the release of dopamine | An exploratory analysis of the genome-wide DNA methylation patterns in whole-blood samples of 16 monozygotic twin pairs with TS |