Table 1 Summary of human milk biomarker and auxological outcomes

Human milk oligosaccharides

13,14

No significant differences in infant anthropometric measurements

Adiponectin

16

HM adiponectin concentrations might be associated with greater weight gain and higher fat mass in the offspring

17

HM adiponectin concentrations were predictors in the model of infant fat mass gain.

Insulin

17

HM insulin negatively associated with WLZ trajectory among infants of NW mothers. HM insulin concentrations were all predictors in the model of infant fat mass gain.

18

No associations between human milk insulin concentrations and infant growth or body composition.

Cortisol

19

High cortisol concentration had lower BMI at 2 years

Insulin-Like Growth Factor 1

21

Early expressed breast milk does not affect IGF-1 plasma levels in infants with gestational age < 31 weeks.

22;23

No significant differences were observed in concentrations of IGF-1 between two groups (overweight/obese vs. normal weight infants).

24

IGF-1 was higher in a group of infants with high weight gain, compared with infants with low or normal weight gain.

25

Higher milk IGF-1 was associated with higher weight at 13 months (p = 0.004) but lower weight at 3 (p = 0.011) and 5 years of age (p = 0.049).

Transforming growth factor beta-1

26

TGF-β1 was significantly higher in infants 3–6 months with a significant difference regarding infants’ weight and length

Interleukin-6

18

IL-6 were associated with lower infant weight, relative weight, and lean mass at first month of age

27

no associations in the role of maternal BMI, sex and stage of lactation on HM IL-6 and their associations with infant body composition.

Tumor necrosis factor-alfa

18

Negatively associated with infant total lean mass at first month of age

27

no associations in the role of maternal BMI, sex and stage of lactation on HM IL-6 and their associations with infant body composition